Let's Learn Together - Artistic Anatomy for Human Figures

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Artistic Anatomy for Human Figures

Contents

• Anatomical Position, Essential Latin Terminology
• Main Bones of The Skeleton (w/ Important Details), Boney Landmarks
• General Body Proportions
• Differences According To Age / Sex / Ethnicity
• Types of Joints, Range of Motion [In Progress...]
• Basic Forms, Gestures, Balance in Poses [In Progress...]
• Muscles of the Body [In Progress...]
• Facial Features, Muscles and Expressions
• The Body in Perspective (Character Design Sheets, Foreshortening, etc.)
• Hair and Hairstyles [In Progress...]
• Clothing and Footwear [In Progress...]

[For a more in-depth approach, see some of the resources in Educational ARTicles or the notes on The Complete Human Figure Anatomy Drawing Course by Riven Phoenix.]

Anatomical Position:
Standing straight up with palms out and feet facing forward

The Anatomical Position acts as a kind of coordinate system, a point of reference for locating various parts of the body.

• Anterior = Front View
• Posterior = Back View

• Medial Line = Center Line, a vertical from the top of the head to the bottom of the heels passing through the core of the body
• Lateral = Away from Medial Line, off to the side

• Superior = Top of figure, Above
• Inferior = Bottom of figure, Below

For parts that extend outward, the appendages:
• Distal End = Point farthest outward from body (e.g.: tips of fingers)
• Proximal End = Point closest toward body (e.g.: shoulder)

Essential Latin Terminology:

Size Related	Location Related	Shape Related
Maximus = Largest	Anterior = Front	Spine = Protrusion
Medius = Middle Sized	Posterior = Back	Condyle = Rounded Bump
Minimus = Smallest Sized	Superior = Above	Process = Sticking Out
Major = Larger	Inferior = Below	Cep~ (Cephalic) = Head/Top
Minor = Smaller	Infra~ = Beneath/Under
Brev~ = Short	Medial = Middle (towards center)
	Lateral = Side (away from center)
	Meta~ = Beyond
	Epi~ = Above

Ref: Drawsh - Introduction to Artistic Anatomy

Main Bones of The Skeleton (w/ Important Details)

Skull
∟ Cranium = helmet-like part that protects brain
∟ Brow Ridge = protrusion above eyes
∟ Glabella = flat portion in the middle of the Brow Ridge
∟ Nasal Bone = below Glabella; only part of nose that is not cartilage/skin
∟ Eye Socket = indentation holding eyeball
∟ Zygomatic Arch = where Eye Socket curves back on side of Skull
∟ Cheekbone = protrusion below Eye Socket; flows into Zygomatic Arch
∟ Maxilla = upper jaw
∟ Mandible = lower jaw bone
∟ Mastoid Process = hard bump behind the Mandible on the bottom of the Skull
∟ Hyoid Bone = horseshoe-shaped bone floating in throat

Sternum
∟ Xyphoid Process = protrusion on the bottom of the Sternum

Rib Cage
∟ Seven "True Ribs" which connect directly to the Sternum through cartilage
∟ Three "Flase Ribs" which connect to other True Ribs through cartilage
∟ Two "Floating Ribs" on the bottom that don't connect to the front of the Rib Cage
∟ Thoracic Arch = the curve on the bottom front of the Rib Cage

Here, we will lump the True Ribs and False Ribs together into a group of ten Ribs that connect to the Sternum, either directly or indirectly.
The top of the Thoracic Arch is the sixth Rib (from the top).
The widest part of Rib Cage is the eigth Rib (from the top).
The Rib Cage is egg shaped, but it looks smaller from the front than from the back because of how the Ribs tilt.

Spine
∟ Seven Cervical Vertebrae in Neck (labeled from top to bottom as C1-C7)
∟ Twelve Thoracic Vertebrae that Ribs attach to (labeled from top to bottom as T1-T12)
∟ Five Lumbar Vertebrae in Lower Back (labeled from top to bottom as L1-L5)
∟ Sacrum = several fused Vertebrae at the base of the Spine that the Pelvis attaches to
∟ Coccyx = tailbone

Clavicle

Scapula
∟ Acromion Process = place where the Clavicle connects to the Scapula (it is part of a ridge called the "Spine of the Scapula")
∟ Coracoid Process = small beak-like shape below the Acromion Process
∟ Glenoid Cavity = a scoop-like indentation in the Scapula that acts like a socket for the "Head of the Humerus" (a ball-like part near the top)

The Shoulder Girdle = Clavicle + Scapula

Humerus
∟ Lateral Epicondyle = protrusion on the Distal End of the Humerus towards the outside of the arm
∟ Medial Epicondyle = protrusion on the Distal End of the Humerus towards the inside of the arm

Ulna
∟ Olecranon Process = Elbow (extends from Ulna)

The Ulna is thick near the Elbow and gets thinner going down towards the hand.

Radius

The Radius "radiates" (or pivots) around the Ulna. The Radius is thin near the top where it connects to the Ulna and gets thicker going down towards the hand.

Hand
∟ Carpal Mass = bones that make up our wrist; where hand connects to Radius
∟ Metacarpals = bones in palm, "beyond" the Carpal Mass
∟ Phalanges = digits of fingers (three bones each) and thumb (two bones each)

Pelvis
∟ Ilium = the "wings" which connect to Sacrum of Spine
∟ Pubis Symphysis = where the Ilium meet on the front of the Pelvis
∟ Ischium = the parts of the Pelvis that we sit on; both curve forward to meet the Pubis Symphysis

Top ridge of each Ilium is the Iliac Crest. The bump on the back of the Iliac Crest is the Posterior Superior Iliac Spine (PSIS).

The large bump on the front of the Iliac Crest is the Anterior Superior Iliac Spine (ASIS). The smaller bump below it is the Anterior Inferior Iliac Spine (AIIS).

Femur
∟ Great Trochanter = protrusion on the top of the Femur
∟ Medial Condyle of Femur = protrusion on the bottom of the Femur (near knee) towards inside of body
∟ Lateral Condyle of Femur = protrusion on the bottom of the Femur (near knee) towards outside of body

The "Head of the Femur" is a ball near the top of the Femur that connects to a socket in the Ilium (the Acetabulum).

Patella

Tibia

Fibula

The Tibia and the Fibula are in the lower leg. The Tibia is the larger of the two.

Foot
∟ Tarsal Mass = the bones that make up our ankle; where the Tibia and Fibula connect to the foot
∟ Metatarsals = the bones that make up our arch; "beyond" the Tarsal Mass
∟ Phalanges = toe bones
∟ Calcaneus = heel bone

Notice the similarity between the layout of the bones in the Arm / Hand and those in the Leg / Foot.

Unlike muscles, bones keep a consistent size and shape. Boney Landmarks are the parts of the bones that are visible along the surface of the body. Not all Boney Landmarks will be visible at the same time (or on every type of body), but the ones that are can help us to find the skeleton underneath and to place the muscles on it correctly. [Click here for an advanced example of this process.]

List of Important Boney Landmarks:

On Front

• The whole Clavicle
• A flat point on the Acromion Process
• The location of the Sternum as a flat area between the chest muscles
• The curve of Thoracic Arch
• The Medial Epicondyle of the Humerus sticks out
• The Iliac Crest and Anterior Superior Iliac Spine (ASIS) are visible on the front of the Pelvis
• The Great Trochanter looks like a depression as Gluteal muscles attach around it
• The Pubis Symphysis sticks out (particularly on the female form)

On Back

• The seventh Cervical Vertebrae sticks out
• Spine and Inner Border of Scapula make ridges or dimples
• A depression on the lower back marks the Lumbar Vertebrae
• Each Posterior Superior Iliac Spine (PSIS) will often make two shallow dimples
• The bottom of the Sacrum often forms a dimple; this dimple forms a triangle with the above two PSIS dimples

On Arm / Hand

• Olecranon Process (Elbow)
• Ulnar Furrow = a depression along the Ulna made from where muslces attach around it
• The end of the Ulna is a bump at the base of the hand on the pinky side

On Leg / Foot

• The Condyles of the Femur sometimes appear as bumps on the surface of the leg when it is bent
• Patella is distinct when seen from the front
• A small bump just below the knee is called the "Nose of the Tibia"
• The front edge of the Tibia makes up the "shin"
• The bottom of the Tibia is the bump of the ankle on the inside of the leg
• The bottom of the Fibula is the bump of the ankle on the outside of the leg; lower than the Tibia one
• The top of the Fibula also makes a little bump
• The Calcaneus

Ref: Drawsh - The Parts of the Skeleton and Boney Landmarks

General Body Proportions

A "proportion" is a comparison of a part to the whole. People often use the head as a unit of measure for the entire body. A different number of "heads" gives a figure with different proportions, the most common being an "Eight Head Model".

[Note: A "Soft Landmark" is one that shows up on the flesh (and is therefore more variable than a Boney Landmark).]

Eight Head Model (Front View, Figure Upright):

1. From the top of the Skull (NOT the hair!) to the bottom of the Chin
The hair has volume and rises above the top of the Skull.
2. From the bottom of the Chin to the Nipple Line (Soft Landmark) or the 5th Rib (Boney Landmark)
3. From the 5th Rib to the Belly Button (Soft Landmark) or midway between the Rib Cage and the Pelvis (Boney Landmark)
4. From the Belly Button to the Pubis Symphysis
5. From the Pubis Symphysis to the lower Thigh
6. From the lower Thigh to just below the Knee
7. From just below the Knee to the middle of the lower Leg, below the Calf muscle
8. From the middle of the lower Leg to the Heel (Calcaneus), NOT the bottom of the Foot
The Heel is aligned with the rest of the body, whereas the Foot points forward.

Even though the Pubis Symphysis is the midpoint of the entire body, the Ischium look lower from the back, while the Gluteal muscles are even lower. The Great Trochanters are in line with the Pubis Symphysis, so they can help us to find the midpoint from the back view.

When the arms at rest on either side of the body:
Elbows align with bottom of Rib Cage.
Wrists are near the Great Trochanters.
Hands fall near mid Thigh.

Using the size or alignment of one thing can help with finding others. For example:

Elbow to Fingertips = Knee to Heel
Shoulder to Buttocks = Shoulder to Palm (with Arm at side)
The Heel of the Foot never protrudes beyond the Buttocks when a person is on their Knees.

Length of Forearm (from Wrist to Elbow) with Arm outstretched = length of Foot
Length of Forearm with Arm bent 90-degrees = length of Hand

Head Width = a circle representing the Cranium in Front View

1 Head Width

• Length of Clavicle
• Length of Sternum
• Length of Hand
• From side of Head to outside of Shoulder in Front View
• Height of Scapula in Back View

2 Head Widths

• Length of Humerus
• Length of lower arm with first row of knuckles
• Width of Rib Cage in Front or Back View

3 Head Widths

• Length of Femur
• Length of lower Leg to Heel (Calcaneus)

Refs:
Drawsh - Proportion of the Figure
Joumana Medlej - Human Anatomy Fundamentals: Basic Body Proportions

Average Age Differences:

• Newborn (0-1 Month) = Body length of 2.5 Heads (legs not counted)
• Baby (~3 Months) = Body length closer to 3 Heads (legs not counted); chubbier body ("baby fat")
• Baby (~10 Months) = Height of 4-5 Heads; lack of neck
• Toddler (1-4 Years) = Height of 5 Heads
• Child (5-11 Years) = Height of 6 Heads; baby fat starts to disappear; nearly horizontal shoulder line (little to no Trapezius development)
• Adolescent (12-17 Years) = Height of 6.5-7 Heads; sex differences start to appear (mainly thanks to puberty); shoulder-to-hip ratio is equal before this point

Notice that age differences are not just differences in height, but in overal proportion!

Average Sex Differences:

[Note: This is a general look at different types of bodily features for artistic purposes. It isn't a commentary on biological / social issues like the overlap of "sex" and "gender". You might disagree. That is ok! There are a wide variety of different body types, just as we noted with age above, and ethnicity below.]

Other than overall height (as males tend to be taller), sex differences in proportions are nearly all horizontal...

• The shoulder-to-hip ratio inverts with each (i.e.: males are usually broad shouldered with narrow hips, whereas females usually have wide hips and narrow shoulders).
• The female waist line is often level with the belly button and elbows, while the male waist line is lower (so the belly button and elbows are higher than it).
• Female hip joints jut outward from the Pelvis, while male hip joints do not.
• Palm and foot width are about half the width of the face in both sexes, but have a tendency to be longer in males.

• Female spines are usually more curved and can arch more.
• Females are usually more round (because of an extra layer of fat), while males are usually more angular (flat around stomach and buttocks depending upon weight).
• Body fat has a tendency to deposit first within the underarms, thighs, and buttocks in women, and within the belly in men, before appearing everywhere else on the body.
• Breasts have weight and respond to gravity. They change size with differences in weight, amount of muscle, etc. The hollow of the armpit flows into the breast. The overall shape is more teardrop, NOT round like a balloon. Usually, two-thirds of their volume is below the areola. There is naturally a small space between them (the "clevage"). Nipples point forward and slightly outward. One breast may be larger than the other.

Ref: Joumana Medlej - Human Anatomy Fundamentals: Advanced Body Proportions; Muscles and Other Body Mass

Average Ethnic Differences:

There are many visual differences across the various ethnicities (e.g.: compare the features common among three of the largest groups - Asian, Caucasian, and African). Let's ignore the categories and look only at the shape of the skull for a moment...

Photo Credit: Imgur

Please keep in mind that there is such a wide variety of possible combinations in skin color, eye color, hair texture, etc. that it is impossible to classify groups of persons into "races", and we have zero interest in providing grist to people who enjoy being racist. However, even if the above image is inaccurate, keeping in mind how the structure of the skull can change from person-to-person is helpful to be aware of when attempting to capture a likeness. It affects surface features to some degree.

Types of Joints, Range of Motion [In Progress...]

Basic Forms, Gestures, Balance in Poses [In Progress...]

Muscles of the Body [In Progress...]

We've already touched upon skull shape, but what other aspects relate to someone's "likeness"?

Face Shape

"Face shape" is determined by the length (top-to-bottom) and width (left-to-right) of various features (such as the forehead, cheekbones, chin / jawline) when the face is viewed from the front. The classification of "face shape" can differ quite a bit depending upon the reference used. Here is one scheme...

Name	Shape	Characteristics
Kite		• prominent cheekbones, which are slightly wider than the mid and lower forehead • narrows at the jawline and the chin
Heart		• a longer and wider forehead, with cheekbones a similar width to the lower forehead • a slightly more prominent jaw than Kite shapes and narrow at the chin
Rectangle		• defined jaw line, of similar width to the cheekbone and lower forehead
Oval		• typically smaller than average on all measures • widest at the cheekbone and narrow through the forehead and jaw
Round		• soft, balanced features • typically with a shorter face length and narrower cheek and jawline
Square		• forehead and chin lengths are almost equal • angular with wider but equal forehead cheekbone and jaw width
Teardrop		• shorter face, with a narrow forehead and cheekbone • only group for which the forehead length is shorter than the chin
Heptagon		• typically longer than average • a wide forehead and prominent cheekbones
Oblong		• longer and wider through all measures

Ref: Daily Mail - Scientists have now identified NINE distinct face shapes

Here are some example images of people with each type of face shape:

Photo Credit: News AU - The nine different face shapes of Australia

[Please note that they have incorrectly put the teardrop shape upside-down in the above image!]

Eyebrow + Brow Ridge Shape

The shape of the eyebrow depends on several factors, such as whether the eyebrow itself is straight or arched, how it angles on the face, and the texture of the hair that makes it up (e.g.: is it thick and "bushy" or is it thin and "sleek"?). This image gives an idea of a few variations:

Photo Credit: Lionesse Beauty Bar

The bony part of the skull that the eyebrows are located on is called the "brow ridge". The shape of the brow ridge can influence the look of the brows (e.g.: there is sometimes a small indentation in the skull between the eyebrows, an area called the "glabella").

Like the cheekbones, the brow ridge can be "prominent" in the sense that it can stick out rather than being flush with the slope of the forehead. This can also affect the shape of the eyes to some extent, for example, if it covers them slightly like a visor.

Eye Shape

The shape of the eye is determined by how the skin of the eyelids wraps around the eyeballs, by the distance each eye is from the other / the sides of the head, and by how the eyeballs sit within the eyesockets in relation to the brow ridge. This image describes several kinds:

Photo Credit: BuzzFeed Life

Despite the stereotypes, it is important to keep in mind that these features are not necessarily unique to any one ethnicity (e.g.: epicanthic folds / monolids and almond shapes are not uniquely "Asian"). There can also be quite a few variations of each kind, which combine several characteristics. Take all of these different "Asian eyes" for example:

Photo Credit: B for Bun Bun

Nose Shape

Nose shape is determined by many things, such as:

• The shape of the area near the eyes, the "nasion" / "nose bridge" (e.g.: is it bumpy or straight?)

• How much the nose itself protrudes from the face (e.g.: is it flat or pointed?)

• How the nostrils are (e.g.: are they like narrow slits or wider holes?)

• Whether the tip points up or down

• What is the cartilage that makes up the "ala" (or "wings" on each side of the nostrils), the "septum" (or boundary between both nostrils), and the tip like?

Like "face shapes", how references classify "nose shapes" can vary widely. Here are few examples of different types of (predominantly "Caucasian") noses...

Name	Example	Characteristics
Snub		• similar to Celestial [see below], but nostrils are more visible from the front
Duchess		• straight and small
Fleshy		• fairly common
Hawk		• sharp profile, may have a slight hook
Mirren		• thin and pointed, narrow and sharp
Greek		• very straight along bridge
Aquiline		• small bump in bridge
Roman		• long with a sloping tip
Rumpole		• bulbous, rounded edges, puffy-looking
Celestial		• small, thin, upturned
Lenin		• broad with large nostrils that are visible from the side
Redknapp		• solid
Nixon		• long, slopes downward, very visible nostrils
Tara		• bumpy and ridged

Refs: Daily Mail - There are 14 nose types; The Odyssey Online - Know Your Nose

Lip Shape

Several factors that determine lip shape are:

• Whether each lip is thin or full

• Whether the corners of the mouth are naturally horizontal, turned up, or turned down when the mouth is closed and at rest

Photo Credit: The Beauty Thesis

The "philtrum" is the little indentation between the bottom of the nose and the upper lip. It can be pointed, curved, or even so flat as to be non-existent. Here are a couple of examples:

Photo Credit: Brightside

Chin Shape

Photo Credit: awesomequotes4u

Facial Angle(s)

It is a common practice, within animation especially, to make "design sheets" that show the same character from multiple views:

Photo Credit: CGCookie?

Because everything is aligned horizontally, it makes it easier to keep the vertical proportions consistent across all of the different views.

We only need two different views to start to perceive dimension, like the "Plan" (top-view) and the "Elevation" (side-view):

From the book Perspective Drawing by Ernest Norling; click for a larger version

This is frequently used within architecture and industrial design, but can be done with more "organic" figures too! For example:

From the book La Vraye Science de la Pourtraicture by Jean Cousin

Notice how the top-view of the head shown in the lower right corner can be used to derive the position of the eyes in the three-quarter view shown directly above it.

Some fantastic examples of this type of thinking are given within Johann Gottfried Schadow's book, Lehre von den knochen und muskeln...

• The proportions of a face when the head is tilted backward:

• The proportions of a face when the head is tilted forward:

• In turn, these can be combined to get some views that might seem very "challenging" to create without a reference photo:

Another useful method for placing things into perspective is to relate a 2-dimensional "Block-In" to a 3-dimensional "Bounding Box". Understanding this relationship is particularly useful for Foreshortening. An elegant demonstration is given by Vesperkore:

Click for a larger version