Genesis

Genesis speaks of beginnings and is foundational to the understanding of the rest of the Bible. It is supremely a book that speaks about relationships, highlighting those between God and his creation, between God and humankind, and between human beings.

The title of the first book, Genesis, comes from Greek and means "origin," a good indication of its character: it describes the origins of the world and of the Israelite nation. God creates the universe in six days. In the Garden of Eden, the first humans commit the Original Sin, and are cast out into the world. Their firstborn son, Cain, murders his shepherd brother, Abel. Generations later, Noah and his family are deemed by God to be the only humans worthy of being spared in a universal deluge. Noah's family and the animals he has been instructed to save repopulate the earth.

After attempting to build the Tower of Babel, the people of the world are scattered, and Genesis moves on to the story of the ancestors of Israel. The first of them, Abraham, leaves Mesopotamia for Canaan. God promises Abraham and his descendants, the Israelites, the land of Canaan as a homeland in perpetuity. Abraham's faith is tested in the so-called "Sacrifice of Isaac". Isaac marries Rebekah, and the family prospers in hard times. The younger of their two sons, Jacob, tricks his brother Esau out of his inheritance and flees to the land of his relatives. Jacob dreams of a ladder leading to heaven. He first marries Leah and then Rachel, and, by them and their two female servants, fathers twelve sons, who become the founders of the twelve tribes of Israel. Jacob himself is renamed "Israel".

Jacob-Israel's eleventh and favorite son, Joseph, is sold by his jealous brothers and ends up in Egypt, where he rises to prominence by interpreting Pharaoh's dreams. During a famine, Joseph's brothers arrive to buy grain and do not recognize Joseph at first. Eventually they are reconciled, and the brothers settle down to a prosperous new life in Egypt.

Exodus

Exodus describes the history of the Israelites leaving Egypt after slavery. The book lays a foundational theology in which God reveals his name, his attributes, his redemption, his law and how he is to be worshiped.

The title is from the Greek exodos, meaning "departure," and the book relates the events surrounding the departure of the Israelites from Egypt and the years of wandering that followed, during which God handed down most of their laws.

Many years after the death of Joseph and his brothers, their descendants have become no better than slaves in Egypt. Pharaoh is alarmed at their numbers and orders the death of all newborn males. One Israelite couple has a son, Moses, who is abandoned on the Nile in a reed basket. However, Pharaoh's daughter rescues Moses and adopts him.

Moses is forced to flee after killing an Egyptian, and following a dramatic encounter with God (Yahweh) at the Burning Bush, he becomes the leader of his people. God gives him and his brother, Aaron, miraculous powers with which to convince Pharaoh to let the Israelites leave Egypt for the Promised Land of Canaan. Pharaoh is obdurate in the face of nine plagues imposed on his land, and only releases the Israelites after the tenth plague, the death of the firstborn of each Egyptian family. This last plague sees the institution of the Israelite festival of Passover.

The liberated Israelites head for the wilderness that lies between Egypt and the Promised Land, but they are pursued by Pharaoh's troops. The waters miraculously part, enabling them to cross the sea, but Pharaoh's pursuing troops are swept away.

In the wilderness, God gives the Israelites manna and quails to eat, and water springs from a rock for them to drink. Joshua becomes the Israelite military commander.

Moses goes up to meet God on Mount Sinai, where he receives the Ten Commandments or Decalogue and a series of other laws. He comes down to find the people feasting around an idol, the Golden Calf. Enraged, he breaks the tablets on which the divine Laws are inscribed. Some Israelite leaders are purged. Moses once more goes up Mount Sinai, and two more tablets of Law are divinely inscribed, renewing the Covenant. Subsequently, the construction, furnishings, and consecration of the Tabernacle - God's sanctuary - are described in detail, as are the vestments of its priests.

Leviticus

Leviticus receives its name from the Septuagint (the pre-Christian Greek translation of the Old Testament) and means "concerning the Levites" (the priests of Israel). It serves as a manual of regulations enabling the holy King to set up his earthly throne among the people of his kingdom. It explains how they are to be his holy people and to worship him in a holy manner.

The book of Leviticus is primarily concerned with the laws given by God to Moses on a range of ritual and other religious matters (the title of the book means "of the Levites," the Israelite priestly tribe). These laws cover burnt offerings and sacrifices; the investiture and duties of priests; ritual cleanness; the commemoration of the Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur); and the preservation of holiness in everyday life and in the feasts of the liturgical calendar.

Numbers

Numbers relates the story of Israel's journey from Mount Sinai to the plains of Moab on the border of Canaan. The book tells of the murmuring and rebellion of God's people and of their subsequent judgment.

God orders a census of the twelve tribes of Israel in Sinai: the census is taken and the results are given at length (hence the name of this book). Further divine laws are promulgated.

The tribal leaders under Moses make ritual offerings, and the Levites are formally consecrated as a priestly clan. The decision is taken to leave Sinai and cross the desert wilderness in the direction of the Promised Land. The Israelites set out, following the "Cloud of Yahweh." Soon, however, there are rumblings of discontent among the people, who are dissatisfied with their lot. Despite reports from scouts sent out by Moses that the land of Canaan is "flowing with milk and honey," there is outright rebellion against Moses and God. Yahweh is angered, and Moses only manages to appease him after God makes it clear that some of the senior Israelites, including Moses himself, will not reach the Promised Land.

A second serious rebellion among the Israelites is divinely punished by earthquake and plague, which kill thousands. Trouble occurs yet again when the Israelites stop for a time at Kadesh-barnea, where they have to withstand military attacks from the local Canaanites. Some of the Israelites begin to worship local idols, and God sends a plague that kills twenty-four thousand Israelites.

The military commander, Joshua, is appointed Moses' deputy. The Israelites invade the land of Midian, and most of its inhabitants are slaughtered. More divine laws are promulgated.

Deuteronomy

Deuteronomy ("repetition of the Law") serves as a reminder to God's people about His covenant. The book is a "pause" before Joshua's conquest begins and a reminder of what God required.

Previous Israelite history and ritual observance is recapitulated and elaborated, hence the title of the book, which means "Second Law".

At the end of the book, Moses issues orders to the Israelites to prepare to enter the Promised Land, and makes a battle speech enjoining them to have faith in Yahweh. On Mount Nebo, Moses blesses the twelve Israelite tribes, and then dies, within sight of the Promised Land.

Joshua

Joshua is a story of conquest and fulfillment for the people of God. After many years of slavery in Egypt and 40 years in the desert, the Israelites were finally allowed to enter the land promised to their fathers.

Following Moses' death, God confirms Joshua's command over his chosen people, and preparations are made to enter the Promised Land. Spies are sent into the city of Jericho, and although their presence is suspected, they are kept hidden at the house of Rahab the prostitute. After the spies have returned to Joshua, the Israelites cross the Jordan into Canaan. Jericho is the first city to fall to the Israelites, and all its inhabitants, apart from Rahab and her family, are put to the sword. Next to be taken is the city of Ai, followed by other cities and towns in Canaan. The whole territory is divided among the Israelite tribes, and the book concludes with Joshua leading the people in a reaffirmation at Shechem of the Covenant with God. At the end of a long life, Joshua dies.

Judges

The book of Judges depicts the life of Israel in the Promised Land—from the death of Joshua to the rise of the monarchy. It tells of urgent appeals to God in times of crisis and apostasy, moving the Lord to raise up leaders (judges) through whom He throws off foreign oppressors and restores the land to peace.

The opening chapters of Judges present a picture of the early period of settlement in Canaan. Sometimes the Israelites fight and conquer the indigenous peoples, sometimes they live peacefully alongside them. Sometimes they abandon Yahweh and adopt the gods of their new neighbors, but each time this happens, God is angered and inflicts punishment on the Israelites. Eventually, however, God hears his people's pleas and sends a heroic deliverer, or "judge," to reverse Israel's misfortunes. The first two judges, Othniel and Ehud, are dealt with briefly. The third judge, Deborah, and her military commander, Barak, rout the forces of their enemy Sisera, who is killed by Jael, the wife of Heber the Kenite. Sisera's death evokes the celebrated Song of Deborah and Barak.

A generation later, the judge Gideon similarly routs the Midianites, but afterward Israel relapses into idolatry. Another crisis is ended through Gideon's successor, Jephthah, who defeats the Ammonites. However, in his triumph Jephthah vows to sacrifice the first creature that he sees on his return home: unhappily for him it is his daughter, his only child.

The judge Samson, is a more solitary hero. He takes on the Philistines, although he also marries one, Delilah. She discloses the secret of Samson's great strength - his long hair - to her own people, who seize Samson and blind him. He gains his revenge in one last act of strength, which causes the Philistine temple to collapse, killing himself and all his enemies.

A time now comes when there is neither judge nor king, and the solidarity of the Israelites weakens. Following a mass rape at Gibeah by members of the tribe of Benjamin, the Benjaminites are almost wiped out by the other tribes.

Ruth

The book of Ruth has been called one of the best examples of short narrative ever written. It presents an account of the remnant of true faith and piety in the period of the judges through the fall and restoration of Naomi and her daughter-in-law Ruth (an ancestor of King David and Jesus).

The folktale-like story of Ruth is placed among the historical books between Judges and 1 Samuel in Christian Bibles, because of its thematic links to both: it is set in the time of the judges and tells the story of a great-great grandmother of King David, who features prominently in Samuel. In Christian belief, she is therefore an ancestor of Jesus. Ruth is also a moral work and in the Jewish Bible it usually appears after Proverbs.

Ruth is the Moabite widow of an Israelite husband. She accompanies her mother-in-law, Naomi, back to Naomi's home town, Bethlehem in Judah. There, Ruth comes under the protection of their kinsman, Boaz, who, after addressing himself to the legal and social formalities involved, marries her. Their son, Obed, is King David's grandfather.

1 Samuel

Samuel relates God's establishment of a political system in Israel headed by a human king. Through Samuel's life, we see the rise of the monarchy and the tragedy of its first king, Saul.

The history of the Israelites resumes with the birth of Samuel, the last and greatest of the judges, to the previously barren Hannah. At an early age, Samuel is placed with the priest Eli for religious training, and it is soon evident that he has been called to serve God.

When Samuel reaches adulthood, the Israelites are defeated by their coastal neighbors, the Philistines, who capture the ark of the Covenant, the dwelling place of God. They take the ark to the temple of their god, Dagon, in the city of Ashdod. But a mysterious plague of cancers immediately strikes the citizens, and the ark is hastily moved to another city. But the plague breaks out there too, and also in a third city. Finally the Philistines send the ark back to the Israelites, complete with gold offerings of appeasement.

It is another twenty years before Samuel becomes the judge or leader of Israel. Many years after that the people decide that they would prefer to be ruled by a king. God, through Samuel, warns them of the disadvantages of monarchy, but they are adamant. God reluctantly consents to their request, and sends Samuel to select Saul, of the tribe of Benjamin, to be the first king of the Israelites. Even before his is officially made king, Saul proves his worth by leading a successful attack on the Ammonites.

Saul triumphs over a great number of Israelite enemies, including the Philistines. Nevertheless, there is friction between Samuel and Saul, which ultimately leads to the latter's downfall. Saul is mentally tormented, and he employs the shepherd boy David, son of Jesse, to be both his armor bearer and the harpist that sooths him in times of stress. Unknown to him, God has already instructed Samuel to anoint David as Saul's successor.

The Philistine armies return, and their champion, the giant Goliath, challenges the Israelites. Armed only with a slingshot, David defeats the giant and kills him. David becomes so popular that Saul is both jealous and afraid of him. David inflicts further defeats on the Philistines, and his success enrages Saul even more. Finally, Saul tries to kill David, who flees the court with the assistance of his great friend Jonathan, Saul's son. About two years later, Saul and Jonathan are both in battle against the Philistines on Mount Gilboa. Jonathan is killed and Saul, badly wounded, kills himself.

2 Samuel

After the failure of King Saul, 2 Samuel depicts David as a true (though imperfect) representative of the ideal theocratic king. Under David's rule the Lord caused the nation to prosper, to defeat its enemies, and to realize the fulfillment of His promises.

David laments the deaths of Saul and Jonathan. He is anointed king of the southern tribe of Judah. Seven years later, after a war between Judah and the followers of Saul's dynasty, David becomes king of the united Israelite nation. He captures Jerusalem from the Jebusites, makes the city his capital, and installs in it the ark of the Covenant.

Various military victories follow and David acquires a small empire. He commits adultery with Bathsheba, the wife of Uriah, one of his officers, and ensures that Uriah is killed in battle. He incurs divine anger for this behavior, and God's displeasure is conveyed by the prophet Nathan. God's punishment is that David's first child by Bathsheba dies; but she bears another, Solomon.

David's last years are marked by court intrigue and rebellions fomented by his many offspring. At one stage, his son Absalom is in virtual control of the kingdom, but his is killed by David's generals, despite David's continued love for him. There are also times of famine, and times when David addresses psalms of praise to God. The book ends with David, following divine command, erecting an altar on the threshing floor of Araunah the Jebusite - the site of the future Temple of Jerusalem.

1 Kings

1 Kings continues the account of the monarchy in Israel and God's involvement through the prophets. After David, his son Solomon ascends the throne of a united kingdom, but this unity only lasts during his reign. The book explores how each subsequent king in Israel and Judah answers God's call - or, as often happens, fails to listen.

Before his death, David appoints Solomon his successor. After a succession struggle, Solomon is anointed king. He effects multiple political marriages, notably with the daughter of the pharaoh of Egypt, and permits foreign faiths to be practiced, even in Jerusalem. But he also builds a magnificent Temple to God in the city. Its construction takes thirteen years before it is finally dedicated.

Solomon's wealth and wisdom becoome renowned, and the queen of the prosperous Arab state of Sheba comes to visit him. But Solomon also institutes forced labor, and there are rumblings of popular discontent. A revolt under Jeroboam is quelled only with difficulty before Solomon dies.

After Solomon's death, political and religious factionalism divide the kingdom, with the northern tribes breaking away from the southern tribal areas of Judah and Benjamin, the heartlands of David and Solomon's dynasty. Two kingdomes are established: Judah in the south, and Israel in the north. Compiled and edited primarly by people with connections to Judah and its capital, Jerusalem, the biblical history is generally more favorable toward the southern kingdom.

During the reign of King Ahab of Israel, the prophet Elijah becomes a prominent figure. He foretells a drought and relates it to the ungodliness of the king of Israel. Ahab is a fine warrior who is married to a Phoenician, Jezebel, a devout worshiper of the god Baal. Elijah performs miracles both to reinforce his authority and to confound the rival prophets of Baal.

Ahab displays great military prowess against Israel's enemies. But God is angered by his deceitful appropriation of a vineyard through the murder, at Jezebel's instigation, of its owner, Naboth. Elijah predicts terrible deaths for both king and queen, which come to pass as foretold. Jezebel outlives Ahab, but when her death comes it is particularly grisly.

2 Kings

2 Kings carries the historical account of Judah and Israel forward. The kings of each nation are judged in light of their obedience to the covenant with God. Ultimately, the people of both nations are exiled for disobedience.

After a miraculous crossing of the Jordan, the prophet Elijah is taken up to heaven, and his mantle passes to his servant Elisha, who recrosses the Jordan and proceeds to perform further miracles. Elisha accurately forewarns the king of Israel against military raids by enemies. Elisha can do nothing, however, to avert the famine caused by the Aramean siege of the capital of Israel, Samaria.

Elisha then becomes resident prophet at the courts of a succession of kings. One is Jehu, who is responsible for the assassination of surviving members of Ahab's dynasty, including his son, Jehoram, and his widow, Jezebel, together with all the priests and prophets that serve Jezebel's god Baal. After Elisha dies, according to the Bible, there is no prophet in the land for another sixty years or so.

The kingdom of Israel falls to the Assyrian king, Shalmaneser. The residents of the capital, Samaria, are deported and the city is repopulated with eastern foreigners. The Bible relates that, about a decade later, King Hezekiah of Judah is also attacked by the Assyrians. The prophet Isaiah, who is active during Hezekiah's reign reassures the king that, for a period at least, Judah is safe, but also warns that a time is coming when the residents of Judah will be carried off into exile in Babylon.

After Hezekiah, the lengthy reign of King Manasseh is dominated by the shadow of the Assyrians, and the Bible accuses Manasseh of idolatry. His successor, King Josiah undertakes a program of religious reform, during which the "book of the law of Moses," possibly the core of what is now the book of Deuteronomy, is said to be "rediscovered" in the Temple.

Josiah falls in battle against the Egyptians, who set up a puppet regime, which is overthrown by the Babylonians. The deportation of the citizens of Jerusalem and the confiscation of most of the city's treasures follow. Within eleven years, however, the remaining people of Judah rebel against Babylon. Jerusalem is at once besieged, captured, pillaged, and destroyed. This time, the Bible reports, all of its people are taken away into captivity in Babylon.

1 Chronicles

Just as the author of Kings had organized and interpreted Israel's history to address the needs of the exiled community, so the writer of 1 Chronicles wrote for the restored community another history.

The first and second books of Chronicles are largely based on the earlier historical books, but they are considered of value because of the way in which they represent and reinterpret the events of Israel's history in the light of the author's contemporary world (Judah under Persian rule after the return of the Babylonian exiles). The first thrid of 1 Chronicles gives genealogies from Adam to the time of the return from Exile. The remainder concentrates on the reign of David.

2 Chronicles

2 Chronicles continues the account of Israel's history with an eye for restoration of those who had returned from exile.

The last book in the Jewish Bible. The first nine chapters of 2 Chronicles recount the reign of Solomon. The remainder relates the history of the two kingdomes until the Exile and the beginning of the restoration of Judah under the Persian king Cyrus, who allows the exiles to return to rebuild the Temple.

Ezra

The book of Ezra relates how God's covenant people were restored from Babylonian exile to the covenant land as a theocratic (kingdom of God) community even while continuing under foreign rule.

The books of Ezra and Nehemiah deal with the history of Judah after the return from Exile. They were considered as one book until around 300 CE, when they were divided as they are now. Both men were probably active in the reign of Artaxerxes I of Persia (465-425 BCE). Much of Ezra and all of Nehemiah are recounted in the first person.

Ezra opens with the decree of Cyrus, king of Persia, that those who wish to may leave Babylon and return to Jerusalem to rebuild the Temple. The returning exiles are listed.

Rebuilding work on the Temple begins. There is some opposition to the returned exiles, and work is halted temporarily. But, encouraged by the prophets Haggai and Zechariah, the Jewish authorities appeal to Cyrus's successor, Darius, whose archives confirm the original royal decree. The Temple is completed and rededicated.

Darius's successor, Artaxerxes, sends Ezra, a Jewish official of the Persian government, to Judah to ensure that the Jewish law is being strictly observed. Ezra finds that many of the formerly exiled families have been intermarrying with non-Jews, and puts a stop to the practice.

Nehemiah

Closely related to the book of Ezra, Nehemiah chronicles the return of this "cupbearer to the king" and the challenges he and the other Israelites face in their restored homeland.

Some eighty-five years after the return from Exile, Nehemiah, the Jewish cupbearer to the Persian king Artaxerxes, is moved to hear of the reputedly dilapidated state of Jerusalem. The king commissions him to go and supervise repairs. He surveys the damage and organizes those who are to be responsible for specific areas of work. However, Nehemiah encounters opposition from other Persian officials and there are delays in the rebuilding work in the city.

Other problems include social privations and various intrigues. But, finally, the city wall is once more in place, with gates, watchtowers, and a citadel.

Ezra is invited to rededicate the city by reading from the book of Moses. The occasion turns into a mass celebration of the Feast of Succoth (Tabernacles or Booths), followed, some days later, by a ceremony of atonement.

Nehemiah reports back to Artaxerxes. The next time Nehemiah returns to Jerusalem, he moves to counteract numerous irregularities in the operation and upkeep of the Temple.

Esther

Esther records the institution of the annual festival of Purim through the historical account of Esther, a Jewish girl who becomes queen of Persia and saves her people from destruction.

Like Ezra and Nehemiah, the book of Esther is a story set in the time of the Persian empire. However, there is little to link it to authentic history apart from the name of the king in the story, "Ahasuerus," who could be any of several Persian rulers called Xerxes or Artaxerxes.

Ahasuerus gives a grand banquet at his capital, Susa, but his queen, Vashti, refuses to attend. The king summarily puts her aside. The beautiful Esther, a young Jewish woman brought up by her uncle Mordecai, is chosen to replace her. But Mordecai makes an enemy of the king's chancellor, Haman, who determines to eliminate all Jews in the empire. He persuades the king to decree death to "a certain people" who keep their own laws.

Mordecai prompts Esther to go to the king and invite Ahasuerus and Haman to her own banquet. There, she reveals that she, the queen, is under threat of death from the king's own decree, and that it is Haman's doing. Horrified, the king rescinds his decree and orders Haman to be hanged on the very gallows he has set up for the Jews. Mordecai is promoted to chancellor, and the Jews are given license to take revenge on their enemies in the empire. In plotting to destroy the Jews, Haman has cast lots (purim); Esther's triumph is therefore celebrated in a new Jewish festival, called Purim.

Job

Through a series of monologues, the book of Job relates the account of a righteous man who suffers under terrible circumstances. The book's profound insights, its literary structures, and the quality of its rhetoric display the author's genius.

God allows Satan to test Job to see if he will remain unquestioningly faithful in the face of adversity. Job subsequently suffers various misfortunes, deprivations, and bereavements. Three of his friends arrive to offer sympathy, or at least intellectual discussion on the subject of divine justice. Job protests his innocence and rails against his fate. A fourth character, Elihu, appears, and attempts to vindicate his own view of God's mysterious ways. God himself intervenes to speak to Job. He tells him that for humans to discuss how God functions is presumptuous, since God is utterly beyond all mortal understanding. Job is humbled. God also reproaches the three friends and orders them to make a special sacrifice. Finally, God restores Job, bringing him even greater happiness and prosperity than he had enjoyed before.

Psalms

The Psalms are collected songs and poems that represent centuries worth of praises and prayers to God on a number of themes and circumstances. The Psalms are impassioned, vivid and concrete; they are rich in images, in simile and metaphor.

The Psalter or book of Psalms is a collection of varied types of liturgical works, such as hymns, supplications, praises, and songs of thanksgiving. They are addressed to God and expressed in poetic language, often of great majesty and beauty. Some are accompanied by instructions for musical accompaniment or indications as to their purpose. Many are attributed to King David.

Proverbs

Proverbs was written to give "prudence to the simple, knowledge and discretion to the young," and to make the wise even wiser. The frequent references to "my son(s)" emphasize instructing the young and guiding them in a way of life that yields rewarding results.

A collection of traditional saying and popular maxims on such themes as correct behavior, godly thoughts, purity in mind and worship, the avoidance of sinners, and the quest for wisdom. This book includes a lengthy list of aphorisms attributed to King Solomon and his counsellors.

Ecclesiastes

The author of Ecclesiastes puts his powers of wisdom to work to examine the human experience and assess the human situation. His perspective is limited to what happens "under the sun" (as is that of all human teachers).

The author, who claims to be Solomon himself, discourses on the nature of existence in God's universe, and on eternal values. Everything about one's life on earth is "vanity and a chasing after wind." A world order exists, but we cannot know it; our only certainty is death. The conclusion to this searching, skeptical, and intensely personal work is that, while people can never know the secret of existence, human integrity makes our stay on earth tolerable. This allows us to enjoy to the full any benefits God may send.

Song of Songs

In ancient Israel everything human came to expression in words: reverence, gratitude, anger, sorrow, suffering, trust, friendship, commitment. In the Song of Solomon, it is love that finds words - inspired words that disclose its exquisite charm and beauty as one of God's choicest gifts.

A poetic dialogue between a woman and her male lover - sometimes called the bride and the groom - expressed in heightened erotic language, and with interpolations by a chorus of "daughters of Jerusalem." It may or may not have been intended as a spiritual allegory.

Isaiah

Isaiah son of Amoz is often thought of as the greatest of the writing prophets. His name means "The Lord saves." Isaiah is a book that unveils the full dimensions of God's judgment and salvation.

The book of Isaiah is in three distinct parts, although it purports to be the prophecies of one man, Isaiah, who was active in the reign of Hezekiah. The first part probably represents the work of Isaiah himself. In it, he warns that Judah will inevitably suffer because of its religious inadequacy. Jerusalem, now a den of vice and idolatry, will be destroyed, but later renewed through the visitation of Yahweh. He foretells the coming of a savior, and describes the awesome power of God. Although Judah is to be overwhelmed and its population deported, a remnant will in time return. In due course, Judah's enemies will suffer for their actions, as will the inhabitants of many of the regions around Judah, even as far away as Egypt.

The prophet attacks the wickedness of humanity and declares that the people of Zion will triumph. Salvation is in the hands of God.

The Assyrian king Sennacherib attacks Judah, but is driven off. King Hezekiah recovers from illness.

Isaiah 40-55 is a work of the Babylonian Exile, by an anonymous prophet who is referred to as "Second Isaiah." King Cyrus of Persia, he claims, will be God's instrument. There is a description of a figure called "the servant of the Lord" who, it is said, will rise up from insignificance among the people to bring justice to the nations. Israel will be freed, the land restored, and monotheism reinstituted: Yahweh will be God of all, judge of the world. There is to be a new covenant for a new Jerusalem, a new heaven and a new earth in which all worship Yahweh.

Chapters 56-66 are another distinct section, "Third Isaiah," dating in origin from the period just after the Exile. It depicts widespread religious and moral abuses, and promises divine retribution, so that the glory of God and his chosen people be shown in its true greatness.

Jeremiah

This book preserves an account of the prophetic ministry of Jeremiah, whose personal life and struggles are shown to us in greater depth and detail than those of any other Old Testament prophet.

God calls Jeremiah, who lived in the period just before the Babylonian Exile, to preach of the doom and destruction of Israel on account of the religious and moral impurity of its people. Even the priesthood is lax and corrupt. The Israelites are urged to repent and turn once more to God. Foreign invasion is regrettably inevitable: the Jews will suffer, their weak faith providing no security.

Jeremiah is threatened for his words but continues his diatribe. He lambasts the people and graphically depicts the horrors of war and deportation. Babylon is to be the instrument of Yahweh's wrath.

But all is not lost. There will come a "branch" of David - a member of the royal line of Judah - who will reign as true king. Israel and Judah will be restored and will once more worship God and revere their king. There will be a new covenant for a renewed Jerusalem, rebuilt in splendor.

Jeremiah is arrested for his outspoken views and is imprisoned until Jerusalem is besieged and falls to the Babylonians. Many of the city's inhabitants are deported, but Jeremiah is allowed to remain. However, following the assassination of the Babylonian governor of Judah, the prophet is taken off to Egypt by remnants of the former army of Judah "for his own protection." Jeremiah protests that all this means is that Egypt will in turn be invaded by Babylon. This, according to the Bible, is exactly what takes place.

Lamentations

Lamentations consists of a series of poetic and powerful laments over the destruction of Jerusalem (the royal city of the Lord's kingdom) in 586 B.C.

Also called the Lamentations of Jeremiah, reflecting its traditional attribution to that prophet. The author utters five carefully constructed dirges for those who have died in the fall of Jerusalem. The city mourns, the people wail in anguish, but there remains hope and trust in God.

Ezekiel

The Old Testament in general and the prophets in particular presuppose and teach God's sovereignty over all creation and the course of history. And nowhere in the Bible are God's initiative and control expressed more clearly and pervasively than in the book of the prophet Ezekiel.

Before the fall of Jerusalem, Ezekiel is commissioned by God to speak out against the wickedness and idolatry of Israel. He lambasts false prophets and lists the sins committed by the nation throughout its history. Yahweh's sword is sharpened and polished, and the Babylonians will wield it. Many nations will suffer, even Egypt. Jerusalem falls, but in a vision Ezekiel sees the bones of Israel rise from the ground and acquire new flesh. The nation, he predicts, will be restored by Yahweh to its own land, and David's line will reign again. Ezekiel then relates his vision of the reconstructed Temple in Jerusalem. He describes rituals for festivals that are to be reinstituted, and appends some notions of the allocation of territory among the remnants of the twelve tribes of Israel.

Daniel

Daniel captures the major events in the life of the prophet Daniel during Israel's exile. His life and visions point to God's plans of redemption and sovereign control of history.

Daniel is said to be one of four young Jewish boys taken in the sack of Jerusalem by King Nebuchadnezzar and brought up during the Exile at the royal court in Babylon. Through prayer, Daniel is able to reveal to the king the meaning of a dream about a great statue. Daniel and his friends gain prestige in Babylon. The king has a golden idol made and demands that all should worship it. But three of Daniel's friends (Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego) refuse, and are thrown into a blazing furnace. To the king's amazement, they survive unharmed through divine intervention.

Nebuchadnezzar has another dream. Daniel interprets it as a warning that the king will lose his reason until he recognizes God. This prediction soon comes to pass.

Some time later, during a feast given by King Belshazzar, fiery writing mysteriously appears on the wall of the banqueting hall. Daniel interprets it to mean that the king will die and his empire will fall to the Persians and Medes. That night, Belshazzar is assassinated.

Belshazzar's successor, the Persian king Darius, is inveigled by his courtiers into issuing a decree that all prayer should be addressed to him. When Daniel refuses to pray to him, he is thrown into a pit of lions - but emerges safely, preserved by God's angel. The penitent king throws the courtiers to the lions instead.

Then it is Daniel's turn to dream: he has apocalyptic visions, most of which are messianic in content (the "Son of Man" is a recurrent expression). The visions probably reflect the turbulent events in Judah under the Selucid empire in the second century BCE, the time when the book of Daniel is thought to have been put together.

Hosea

The prophet Hosea son of Beeri lived in the tragic final days of the northern kingdom. His life served as a parable of God's faithfulness to an unfaithful Israel.

The prophet Hosea was probably active ca. 740-730 BCE. He is told by God to take a prostitute as a wife. He is then asked to love a woman as God loves Israel. Hosea's experience with his wife or wives (whether one or two women are involved is open to discussion) is a symbol of God's relationship with his people. God's bride, Israel, has become a faithless whore, corrupt, occasionally professing insincere repentance, though more usually ruled by sinful desires (especially true of her kings, nobles, and priests). But after a display of his anger and jealousy, God will yet restore the one nation he loves above all others.

Joel

The prophet Joel warned the people of Judah about God's coming judgment - and the coming restoration and blessing that will come through repentance.

According to the book of the prophet Joel, God promises to rid Judah of a plague of locusts, and to restore the prosperity of the devastated land. The plague is symbolic of God's even more devastating judgment of the world on the last day. However, for those who repent, this will herald a great outpouring of divine blessing.

Amos

Amos prophesied during the reigns of Uzziah over Judah (792-740 B.C.) and Jeroboam II over Israel (793-753).

Amos was active under Jeroboam II of Israel (786-784 BCE), a prosperous time. The prophet denounces the evil committed by the peoples on every side of Judah and Israel. But he is also aware of the corruption, ostentatious luxury, faithlessness, fornication, and obstinancy of his own people. There cannot be salvation without repentance. The "day of the Lord" is coming, and dire punishment is on its way: but the glory of the house of David will one day be restored.

Obadiah

The prophet Obadiah warned the proud people of Edom about the impending judgment coming upon them.

The book of Obadiah is the shortest work in the Hebrew Scriptures / Old Testament. The prophet is scathing about the Edomites for invading Judah after the destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians in 587/6 BCE. But the coming "day of the Lord" will turn the tables on Edom, when Israel is restored to its full might and glory.

Jonah

Jonah is unusual as a prophetic book in that it is a narrative account of Jonah's mission to the city of Nineveh, his resistance, his imprisonment in a great fish, his visit to the city, and the subsequent outcome.

God instructs Jonah to go to Nineveh in Assyria and warn the inhabitants that their wickedness will lead to their destruction. But Jonah is reluctant to obey his call, flees to Joppa, and takes a ship in the opposite direction. A storm blows up, for which Jonah accepts blame, and, at his own request, is thrown overboard. Swallowed by a giant fish, Jonah is vomited ashore, and heads for Nineveh. There he preaches the imminent destruction of the city. The citizens repent and renounce their ways, and God does not destroy the city. Jonah indignantly demands to know of God what the point of all his efforts has been. Through a sign, Yahweh demonstrates that he is the God of all nations, who will show concern even for those who are not Israelites if they repent of their sins.

Micah

Micah prophesied sometime between 750 and 686 B.C. during the reigns of Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah. Israel was in an apostate condition. Micah predicted the fall of her capital, Samaria, and also foretold the inevitable desolation of Judah.

Micah prophesied in the last decades of the northern Israelite kingdom of Israel (ca. 735-725 BCE). The book of Micah, which includes writing by, among others, an anonymous contemporary, forecasts destruction for both Israel and the southern kingdom, Judah. But afterward there will be liberation and restoration, led by a national savior who will be born, like King David, in Bethlehem in Judah. Present problems are the result of corruption and faithlessness, for which the people should seek God's forgiveness.

Nahum

The book contains the "vision of Nahum," whose name means "comfort." The focal point of the entire book is the Lord's judgment on Nineveh for her oppression, cruelty, idolatry, and wickedness.

The book of Nahum is the only prophetic writing that actually calls itself a book in the text; it may be a liturgy of the Jerusalem Temple. Nahum is a brilliant poetic expression of joy at the prospect of the destruction of Nineveh, the capital of the hated Assyrian empire, which feel to the Babylonians and Medes in 612 BCE. Nineveh, a city steeped in blood and debauchery, will be utterly wiped out; Judah and Israel will be restored.

Habakkuk

Little is known about Habakkuk except that he was a contemporary of Jeremiah and a man of vigorous faith. The book bearing his name contains a dialogue between the prophet and God concerning injustice and suffering.

Habakkuk complains to God for letting lawlessness go unpunished. He foresees invasion by the Babylonians (Chaldeans) as the instrument of divine retribution (he was probably active during the period of Babylonian expansion, ca. 610-600 BCE). In reply, God reassures the prophet of the coming judgment. The prophet then utters a public prayer expressing his trust and joy in God in the face of anguish.

Zephaniah

The prophet Zephaniah was evidently a person of considerable social standing in Judah and was probably related to the royal line. The intent of the author was to announce to Judah God's approaching judgment.

The Bible says that Zephaniah was a descendant of King Hezekiah of Judah who was active in the reign of King Josiah (640-609 BCE). The prophet foresees the approach of the "day of the Lord," on which Judah will be destroyed and Jerusalem sacked and pillaged. Even humble repentance for sin may not be enough to mitigate God's anger against every citizen. But in due course, Israel will be raised up again to triumph over her present enemies and oppressors. There will be shouts of joy and psalms of exultation in Zion. The exiles will return, and all those remaining alive on earth will be Yahweh's people. Zephaniah 1:14-15 inspired a famous medieval Latin poem called Dies Irae, which became part of the Latin Requiem Mass.

Haggai

Haggai was a prophet who, along with Zechariah, encouraged the returned exiles to rebuild the temple. His prophecies clearly show the consequences of disobedience. When the people give priority to God and his house, they are blessed.

Haggai and Zechariah prophesied in the period after the return from Exile in Babylon, in the early years of Darius (522-486 BCE). Haggai is appalled that people continue to live in fine houses while God's Temple still lies in ruins. Zerubbabel, the governor of the Persian province of Judah and a person of Judean royal descent, organizes a work party to start rebuilding. Haggai declares that God has chosen Zerubbabel for a position of greatness.

Zechariah

Like Jeremiah and Ezekiel, Zechariah was not only a prophet, but also a member of a priestly family. The chief purpose of Zechariah (and Haggai) was to rebuke the people of Judah and to encourage and motivate them to complete the rebuilding of the temple.

Zechariah receives several divine visions that together indicate God's intention to restore the Promised Land to his people, and to see the Temple rebuilt under the direction of Zerubbabel. Zion must rejoice in the renewed interest of God and lsiten to his words. Jerusalem will be great again, and God's people will be universally respected and admired. A savior-king is coming who will rule a kingdom of peace stretching to the ends of the earth.

Zechariah's final vision is apocalyptic, and features the final battle of Jerusalem. God is victorious: from that time, all nations worship him and do his will.

Malachi

Malachi, whose name means "my messenger," spoke to the Israelites after their return from exile. The theological message of the book can be summed up in one sentence: The Great King will come not only to judge his people, but also to bless and restore them.

Malachi, who was probably active ca. 475 BCE (after Haggai and Zechariah but before Ezra and Nehemiah), rages against the corrupt worldliness of the priesthood, whose teachings and customs are causing many to stumble from the path of righteousness. Moreover, idolatry and divorce are permitted. The "great and terrible day of the Lord" is coming when every sinner will be purified like molten gold and silver, or burned up like stubble. God declares that he will send a messenger before him to pave the way for his arrival: the great prophet Elijah will appear to turn people to God so that they may be saved. Christians have traditionally understood the book of Malachi as a work containing important prefigurations of the coming of Jesus. For this reason, the Old Testament places the prophetic books last, so that Malachi immediately precedes the New Testament.

OT Overview

Christians and Jews consider the Old Testament to be the foundational historical canon of religious worship; some of the earlier sections hold religious significance to Moslems as well. Said to include the entire history of the world, from its creation down to the last days, its prophetic - and often cryptic - utterances and chronicled events all point to one major occurrence: the coming of the Messiah.

The vast work is divided into four major section: The creation, the story of Abraham, and the patriarchs in Canaan (Genesis and Job) make up the first section. The second (Exodus through Ruth) covers the period from Israel's bondage in Egypt, the exodus, all through the conquest of the Promised Land. The third section (I Samuel through Zephaniah) includes Israel's history as a united - then a divided - kingdom in the land of Canaan. And the final section (Ezekiel through Malachi) records the fall of the two major kingdoms, Israel and Judah, the Babylonian Captivity, and the release of the exiles to rebuild their country.

Text Overview:

I. In the Beginning

"In the beginning, God created heaven and earth." After forming Adam and Eve, he caused them to become living souls and place them in the Garden of Eden, a paradise. He forbade them to eat fruit from the tree of knowledge of good and evil, on pain of death. They disobeyed, and were cast out of the garden. Thus, through this first transgression, sin and rebellion entered the world; Adam and Eve's fall from innocence was the beginning of humanity's estragement from God.

After some 900 years, sin and iniquity became so widespread that God resolved to cleanse the earth of its inhabitants by sending a cataclysmic flood. God commanded the prophet Noah, who "found grace in the eyes of the Lord," to build an ark, in which he, his family, and male and female members of every species of animal were saved from drowning.

Following the flood, Noah's descendants flourished for a time, but eventually became so sinful and arrogant that they attempted to build a tower that would reach to heaven. Angry, God punished their folly by confusing their languages and scattering the people to different parts of the earth.

Out of the materially advanced but spiritually dead culture of the Near East, God chose Abraham as his prophet. God made a covenant with Abraham that his posterity would be a chosen people. Through Abraham, God promised that a Messiah would come to bless the whole world and redeem humanity from sin. Following God's injuction, Abraham traveled from Ur, in Mesopotamia, to Canaan, the Promised Land.

However, Abraham needed to learn certain lessons of faith and obedience. As a test of faith, God commanded Abraham to sacrifice his firstborn son Isaac on the altar. Just as Abraham was about to sacrifice his son, an angel from God intervened - Abraham's obedience and faith had been manifest.

Isaac's chief significance was that he fathered Jacob. Jacob tricked his father into giving him, not his older brother Esau, the birthright blessing reserved for the eldest son. In a vision, God promised Jacob that his posterity would "multiply as the stars of the heaven." Finally, Jacob reconciled with Esau, and his name, Jacob - which means "usurper" in Hebrew - was changed to Israel, meaning "prince of God," the title that God's "chosen people" would bear ever after.

II. On the March

Israel fathered twelve sons, each of which would someday lead one of Israel's twelve "tribes." The second to youngest, Joseph, was sold into slavery by his jealous older brothers. Eventually, Jacob's sons journeyed to Egypt to escape a severe famine in Canaan. Joseph, who had since risen to become a ruler of Egypt, second only to Pharaoh, forgave his brothers and provided for his family's needs.

Israel's family eventually settled in Goshen. After four hundred years in Egypt, the people had grown and prospered, becoming a mighty nation. Eventually, though, a Pharaoh took power who, fearing the Hebrews' vast numbers, enslaved them. By their suffering, the Israelites were taught to rely on God's mercy.

God selected Moses to lead the Israelites out of Egypt. Moses went to Pharaoh and demanded that the people be freed from bondage, but Pharaoh refused. Thus, God brought down ten successive plagues upon the Egyptians, the last of which killed all firstborn males throughout the land. This plague led to the institution of the Passover: the firstborn son of every believing Israelite family was spared death ("passed over" by the destroyinig angel) if the blood of a sacrificed lamb (symbolic of the coming Christ's sacrifice) was painted over the doorway. Death visted all who were not "under the blood."

Pharaoh, whose eldest son died in the plague, finally allowed the Israelites to leave. But his anger was again kindled, and he sent his army to slaughter the departing Israelites, who found themselves caught between the Red Sea and the Egyptian army. Miraculously, God parted the waters of the Red Sea, delivered them "dry-shod" through the channel, and destroyed Pharaoh's pursuing army. Despite this deliverance and many other blessings given them by God, the children of Israel often complained about their hardships.

They journeyed eastward to Mount Sinai, where God gave Moses Ten Commandments:

1. Thou shalt have no other gods before me.
2. Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image...
3. Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain...
4. Remember the sabbath day, to keep it holy...
5. Honour thy father and thy mother...
6. Thou shalt not kill.
7. Thou shalt not commit adultery.
8. Thou shalt not steal.
9. Thou shalt not bear false witness against they neighbour.
10. Thou shalt not covet they neighbour's [possessions]...

These basic religious / societal laws became the core doctrine for both the Jewish and Christian faiths, a foundation that endures up to the present day.

Because of unbelief, Israel became an itinerant, nomadic nation, and wandered in the wilderness thirty-eight more years, until all the faithless adult generation had perished. Moses, "whom the Lord knew face to face," also died before entering the Promised Land. Joshua, Moses' appointed successor, led the people across the Jordan River - again parting the waters - where they began to conquer, settle, and prosper in a land "flowing with milk and honey."

"In those days," however, "there was no king in Israel; everyone did what he thought best." (Judges 21:25) Lacking national unity, Israel was weak and in a state of perpetual anarchy.

III. In the Land

Responding to Israelite demands for a king, the prophet Samuel anointed Saul the first King of Israel. Although an effective military leader, Saul was unequipped to be Israel's spiritual leader. After disregarding God's command to "utterly to destroy" the Amalekites and their possessions, Samuel anointed David to replace Saul. David, as a young man, had first shown his favor with God by defeating the giant Philistine, Goliath, using only a sling.

David, eager to merge the northern and southern tribes, proclaimed centrally-located Jerusalem the political and religious capitol of a united Israel. Both a skilled statesman and an effective general, he defeated the Philistines and expanded the kingdom into a vast empire. While David's great sin - sending Uriah, one of his generals, to the front lines to die so that he could marry Bathsheba, Uriah's wife - did not cost him the throne, God promised David that the sword would bedevil his family forever. However, God also promised David that through his descendants, a Messiah would come to redeem Israel and the rest of the world from sin.

After a period of internal strife, David's son Solomon took the throne. Israel soon flourished in power, influence, wealth, and glory. Solomon, while not a military leader, was a wise political leader. He brought order to the nation and pursued an aggressive building program, including an elaborate temple and various fortifications. Funded by heavy taxes and built through forced labor, however, Solomon's great buildings alienated his own people, and eventually he fell into idolatry (the worship of idols or "heathen" gods). But despite the failings of their leaders, God continued to guide his people toward the fulfillment of the promise made to Abraham.

Through David and Solomon emerged some of the Old Testament's most powerful verse. David's twenty-third Psalm reads: The Lord is my shepherd; I shall not want. He maketh me to lie down in green pastures: he leadeth me beside the still waters. He restoreth my soul... Yea, though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I will fear no evil: for thou art with me...

Solomon's Proverbs are renowned for their insight and spiritual direction: Trust in the Lord with all thine heart; and lean not unto thine own understanding. In all they ways acknowledge him, and he shall direct thy paths. (Prov. 3:5-6) A soft answer turneth away wrath; but grievous words stir up anger. (Prov. 15:1)

Over the ensuing centuries, Israel fell into various states of anarchy, and the kingdom was again divided, Israel to the north, Judah to the south. Babylonian attacks periodically brought both nations into captivity and destruction. These years also saw the prophetic / kingly ministries of Elijah, Elisha, Jehoshaphat, Micah, Hezekiah, Isaiah, Josiah, and the prophetess Huldah, each assisting the chosen king in his duties and trying to convince the people to keep the commandments and reject their idolatrous practices. Finally, the Babylonians conquered both of the principal kingdoms, leaving the nations mere shadows of their former glory.

IV. A Remnant Restored

The prophets Daniel and Ezekiel - who went into exile with Judah's last king, Jehoiakim - recorded the period of Israelite captivity. Those who were faithful to God during their captivity were blessed. God preserved three men who were cast into a fiery furnace for refusing to bow down and worship idols. A young man named Daniel likewise was cast into a den of lions for worshipping the Lord, and he was also saved. This Daniel, who grew to become both a statesman and a prophet, eventually rose from royal hostage to third in command in Babylon.

After seventy years in captivity, God raised up Cyrus, ruler of Persia, to conquer Babylon and to decree that Judah was to return to the land of Israel; the Jews began to rebuild their country. The first returning exiles reconstructed the temple, but it was a poor substitute for Solomon's glorious edifice. Seventy-five years later, Nehemiah rebuilt Jerusalem's walls, a feat accomplished despite the opposition of Samaria and Ammon.

The prophet Ezra finally led a group of Jews from Babylon to Jerusalem, where he reinforced the observance of the Torah (the "Pentateuch," or first five books of the Old Testament) and purified the temple rituals. Many Jews, though, never returned: some continued to reside in Persia, where they were saved from destruction y the courageous Jewish Queen Esther; others were scattered around the world. Still, Judaism continued to prosper, and most Hebrews continued to await the Holy Messiah's appearance. For, as the prophet Isaiah had foretold, the Messiah would come to deliver them from bondage, sin and death: "Surely he hath borne our griefs, and carried our sorrows... He was wounded for our transgressions... and with his stripes we are healed."

Matthew

Matthew's main purpose in writing his Gospel (the "good news") is to prove to his Jewish readers that Jesus is their Messiah. He does this primarily by showing how Jesus in his life and ministry fulfilled the Old Testament Scriptures.

The gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke are closely related and are referred to collectively as the Synoptic Gospels. Each gospel recounts the life, works, teachings, death, and resurrection of Jesus. Matthew is the work of a Jewish Christian who sees in Jesus the Messiah. Jesus' coming, Matthew claims, has been foretold in the Scriptures. Jesus represents the fulfillment of God's promises, the inauguration of a new Covenant, and the coming of the kingdom of heaven. Matthew opens with a genealogy of Jesus. Unique to his gospel are the stories of the visit of the Magi after Jesus' birth, the Massacre of the Innocents, the Flight into Egypt, and the Sermon on the Mount (although Luke has a similar but much shorter passage). The evangelist includes frequent quotations from the Hebrew Bible.

Mark

Since Mark's Gospel (the "good news") is traditionally associated with Rome, it may have been occasioned by the persecutions of the Roman church in the period c. A.D. 64-67. Mark may be writing to prepare his readers for such suffering by placing before them the life of our Lord.

The shortest and possibly the earliest of the gospels. Its author restricts himself to the bald facts as much as possible. Nonetheless, Jesus' major burdens - hostility from the authorities and incomprehension on the part of his disciples - are well depicted. Mark's account begins with Jesus' baptism and ends abruptly after the appearance of Jesus to the two Marys at the tomb (16:8). From 16:8 the gospel has been completed by a different author.

Luke

Luke's Gospel (the "good news") was written to strengthen the faith of all believers and to answer the attacks of unbelievers. It was presented to debunk some disconnected and ill-founded reports about Jesus. Luke wanted to show that the place of the Gentile (non-Jewish) Christian in God's kingdom is based on the teaching of Jesus.

Luke is a literary Hellenistic author, whose gospel is the first of two volumes, the second being Acts. Together they recount the history of the faith from the birth of John the Baptist to the preaching of the apostle Paul in the capital of the Roman empire. Luke strives throughout to lend his account historical authenticity. His message is primarily addressed to Gentiles, and he therefore tones down the specifically Jewish aspects of Jesus' life and teachings. A major theme is the compassion and forgiveness of God through Jesus, by means of which salvation is open to all.

Numerous episodes are unique to Luke, such as the annunciation of the birth of the Baptist; the presentation of Jesus in the Temple; the story of Jesus among the Temple teachers; many of the best known parables, such as the stories of the Good Samaritan and the Prodigal Son.

John

John's Gospel (the "good news") is rather different from the other three, highlighting events not detailed in the others. The author himself states his main purpose clearly in 20:31: "that you may believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, and that by believing you may have life in his name."

The most mystical of the evangelists, John - traditionally identified as the apostle John, son of Zebedee - seems to have drawn on a different tradition of Jesus' life and teachings than the Synoptics. The first part of John's gospel (chs. 2-12) revolves largely around six extended discourses that explain six miracles. The rest of the gospel is notable for a further series of speeches by Jesus. Unlike the other gospels, John portrays Jesus as someone who regularly visted Jerusalem for the important Jewish festivals; in the Synoptics, Jesus makes only one main visit, at the end of his life.

Acts

The book of Acts provides a bridge for the writings of the New Testament. As a second volume to Luke's Gospel, it joins what Jesus "began to do and to teach" as told in the Gospels with what he continued to do and teach through the apostles' preaching and the establishment of the church.

Luke the evangelist continues his story in his second volume, Acts. He describes how the apostles receive the Holy Spirit at Pentecost and at once begin preaching to the nations. Several of the apostles (although not all of the twelve are mentioned in Acts) perform miracles, and soon the authorities are trying to stop them. The first follower of Jesus to be martyred is Stephen, a prominent activist, who is arrested, condemned, and stoned to death. The young Saul/Paul, a Pharisee from Tarsus in Asia Minor, is present at the stoning and approves of it.

On his way to arrest Christians in Damascus, Saul/Paul experiences a vision that brings about a dramatic change of heart: he is baptized and begins preaching the gospel, becoming himself the target of persecution.

Congregations of followers of Jesus spring up outside Palestine, notably at Antioch in Syria, from where Paul and his colleague Barnabas embark on a missionary journey to Asia Minor. Paul makes further missionary journeys to Asia Minor and Greece. Before his second journey, he attends an important council of Church leaders at Jerusalem. The council agrees that Gentile converts to Christianity in Syria and Asia Minor need not comply with strict Jewish requirements such as circumcision and the food laws.

After his third journey, Paul returns to Jerusalem, where he is persecuted by Jewish authorities. As a Roman citizen, Paul appeals to the Roman authorities and eventually wins the right to put his case to the emperor. He sails for Rome, and Acts ends with Paul under mild house arrest in the imperial capital, preaching the gospel. Luke says nothing further about his appeal or ultimate fate.

Romans

Paul's primary theme in Romans is presenting the gospel (the "good news"), God's plan of salvation and righteousness for all humankind, Jew and non-Jew alike.

In his letter to the Roman church, Paul says that faith in God's truth and justice leads to the salvation of all Christians, whether their background be Jewish or Gentile. The new Israel is the successor to the old Israel, but is not by any means restricted to Israelites. Faith guarantees salvation - deliverance from sin and death. People must love one another, and love those who act against them. The secular law should be obeyed.

1 Corinthians

The first letter to the Corinthians revolves around the theme of problems in Christian conduct in the church. It thus has to do with progressive sanctification, the continuing development of a holy character. Obviously Paul was personally concerned with the Corinthians' problems, revealing a true pastor's (shepherd's) heart.

Paul writes to the church at Corinth calling for unity in the face of factionalism. He addresses sexual morality, marriage, divorce, the Eucharist, and the importance of love.

2 Corinthians

Because of the occasion that prompted this letter, Paul had a number of purposes in mind: to express the comfort and joy Paul felt because the Corinthians had responded favorably to his painful letter; to let them know about the trouble he went through in the province of Asia; and to explain to them the true nature (its joys, sufferings and rewards) and high calling of Christian ministry.

Probably a composite of several Pauline letters, 2 Corinthians expresses, among other things, Paul's frustration that his first letter has apparently had little effect.

Galatians

Galatians stands as an eloquent and vigorous apologetic for the essential New Testament truth that people are justified by faith in Jesus Christ - by nothing less and nothing more - and that they are sanctified not by legalistic works but by the obedience that comes from faith in God's work for them.

Paul launches into this letter with an expression of astonishment that the Galatian church should be turning from the true gospel so soon. The Galatians should ignore those who say that Christians must follow the Jewish Law and be circumcised. Paul insists that Jewish traditions are not compulsory for Christians: faith in Jesus is more important than the works of the Law.

Ephesians

Unlike several of the other letters Paul wrote, Ephesians does not address any particular error or heresy. Paul wrote to expand the horizons of his readers, so that they might understand better the dimensions of God's eternal purpose and grace and come to appreciate the high goals God has for the church.

Paul is traditionally said to be the author of this letter, but this is doubtful. Its author states that believers are neither Jews nor Gentiles: all are Christians, part of God's household. The author calls for mutual respect between owners and slaves, employers and laborers.

Philippians

Paul's primary purpose in writing this letter was to thank the Philippians for the gift they had sent him upon learning of his detention at Rome. However, he makes use of this occasion to fulfill several other desires: (1) to report on his own circumstances; (2) to encourage the Philippians to stand firm in the face of persecution and rejoice regardless of circumstances; and (3) to exhort them to humility and unity.

The letter to the Philippian church is generally agreed to be by Paul. It is personal and affectionate in tone. He thanks God for the work of the Philippians in spreading the gospel, and prays that their love for each other continues to increase so that, in unity and humility, they may all work together for salvation. But he also warns them against "evil workers" who are insisting on the necessity of circumcision.

Colossians

Paul's purpose is to refute the Colossian heresy. To accomplish this goal, he exalts Christ as the very image of God, the Creator, the preexistent sustainer of all things, the head of the church, the first to be resurrected, the fullness of deity (God) in bodily form, and the reconciler.

The letter to Colossae is probably, but not certainly, by Paul. If he is the author, it was possibly sent to Colossae at the same time as the letter to Philemon. Colossians portrays Jesus as a cosmic figure, "the firstborn of all creation," the supreme head of the universal Church. The letter enjoins its recipients to hold fast to Jesus, because, it says, Jesus has redeemed all people and forgiven them their sins. Paul calls upon the members of the Colossian church to abandon the desires and temptations of the flesh, which represent a person's past existence.

1 Thessalonians

Although the thrust of the letter is varied, the subject of eschatology (doctrine of last things) seems to be predominant in both Thessalonian letters. Every chapter of 1 Thessalonians ends with a reference to the second coming of Christ.

The first letter to the church at Thessalonica is often believed to be the first of Paul's letters. He thanks God for the faith shown by those he addresses, who he says have been an example to everyone in the face of adversity. He also calls upon them to refrain from fornication and sexual license, and to be upright, law-abiding citizens who are prepared to work for a living. He gives reassurance about the imminence of Jesus' second coming.

2 Thessalonians

Since the situation in the Thessalonian church has not changed substantially, Paul's purpose in writing is very much the same as in his first letter to them. He writes (1) to encourage persecuted believers, (2) to correct a misunderstanding concerning the Lord's return, and (3) to exhort the Thessalonians to be steadfast and to work for a living.

The authorship of the second letter to the Thessalonians has aroused much debate, with many rejecting Paul as the author. However, it picks up on themes covered in 1 Thessalonians, such as the second coming of Jesus. The second coming is being delayed, the author claims, by a "lawless one," who will occupy the Temple and claim to be God.

1 Timothy

During his fourth missionary journey, Paul had instructed Timothy to care for the church at Ephesus while he went on to Macedonia. When he realized that he might not return to Ephesus in the near future, he wrote this first letter to Timothy to develop the charge he had given his young assistant. This is the first of the "Pastoral Epistles."

The first of the "Pastoral Letters," which deal with the running of the Church and care of the Christian faithful. The authorship of this and the following two letters is disputed, unlike most of Paul's undoubtedly genuine letters. The author tells Timothy that Jesus came into the world to save sinners, and if Jesus could show mercy to the greatest sinner (Paul, who began as a persecutor of the faith), then he do so to anybody who has faith in him.

Congregational leaders must manage people and be able to teach by example and through mutual respect. The author gives instructions about widows, elders, and slaves. In fighting for their faith, the faithful will win eternal life.

2 Timothy

Paul was concerned about the welfare of the churches during this time of persecution under Nero, and he admonishes Timothy to guard the gospel, to persevere in it, to keep on preaching it, and, if necessary, to suffer for it. This is the second "Pastoral Epistle."

The second of the Pastoral Letters. The author, who is possibly not Paul, calls upon his correspondent, whom he once more addresses in very warm terms, to use the strength that comes with the grace of Jesus to bear witness to the gospel. As a teacher of the gospel, he should be prepared to endure suffering, as the author does, for if the faithful hold firm they will reign with Jesus. The author entreats Timothy to avoid the sort of specious debates and discussions that lead people astray. He should abide by what he has been taught and knows to be true.

Titus

Apparently Paul introduced Christianity in Crete when he and Titus visited the island, after which he left Titus there to organize the converts. Paul sent the letter with Zenas and Apollos, who were on a journey that took them through Crete, to give Titus personal authorization and guidance in meeting opposition, instructions about faith and conduct, and warnings about false teachers. This is the last of the "Pastoral Epistles."

The third and last of the Pastoral Letters. Again, Paul's authorship is open to question. The author tells his correspondent to appoint church elders in Crete as he had formerly instructed. The elders must teach sound doctrine in order to counter the teachers of Jewish myths. He goes on to give examples of such sound doctrine and the behavior that goes with it.

The author gives instructions to live a life of decency; lack of decorum, the author writes, scarcely befits those who are awaiting the second coming of Jesus. His correspondent should insist on respectful behavior.

Philemon

To win Philemon's willing acceptance of the runaway slave Onesimus, Paul writes very tactfully and in a lighthearted tone, which he creates with wordplay. The appeal is organized in a way prescribed by ancient Greek and Roman teachers: to build rapport, to persuade the mind, and to move the emotions.

Paul wrote the letter to Philemon from prison, where he had met and converted Onesimus ("Useful"), Philemon's runaway slave. Paul sent Onesimus back home with the letter, which asks Philemon, a leader of the church at Colossae, to take Onesimus back (the letter may have been sent to Colossae at the same time as the letter to the Colossians). He urges Philemon to treat Onesimus not as a slave but as a new brother in Jesus.

Paul offers restitution for anything Onesimus may have stolen when he escaped, and perhaps hints that Philemon might free the slave to continue to work for the author in prison.

Hebrews

The theme of Hebrews is the absolute supremacy and sufficiency of Jesus Christ as revealer and as mediator of God's grace. A striking feature of this presentation of the gospel is the unique manner in which the author employs expositions of eight specific passages of the Old Testament Scriptures.

The author of the letter to the Hebrews is unnamed. The letter shows how Jesus represents the fulfillment of God's promises to Israel. His sacrifice alone atones for the sins of humankind. Salvation comes through faith in him and his works.

James

Characteristics that make the letter distinctive are: (1) its unmistakably Jewish nature; (2) its emphasis on vital Christianity, characterized by good deeds and a faith that works (genuine faith must and will be accompanied by a consistent lifestyle); (3) its simple organization; (4) and its familiarity with Jesus' teachings preserved in the Sermon on the Mount.

This letter is traditionally said to be from James, the brother of Jesus. The author addresses a group of Jewish Christians, who are told to consider their trials as a privilege, and temptation as an opportunity to do right. They should assist the poor, especially if they themselves are comfortably off.

1 Peter

Although 1 Peter is a short letter, it touches on various doctrines and has much to say about Christian life and duties. It is not surprising that different readers have found it to have different principal themes. For example, it has been characterized as a letter of separation, of suffering and persecution, of suffering and glory, of hope, of pilgrimage, of courage, and as a letter dealing with the true grace of God.

The first of two letters traditionally attributed to the apostle Peter. The author offers encouragement to the faithful in the face of local hostility. They should love one another in total honesty and follow Jesus.

2 Peter

In his first letter Peter feeds Christ's sheep by instructing them how to deal with persecution from outside the church; in this second letter he teaches them how to deal with false teachers and evildoers who have come into the church.

This letter is generally accepted not to be by Peter. The author claims that he does not have long for this world. He denounces false teachers and says that the expectation of Jesus' second coming must never be abandoned.

1 John

John's readers were confronted with an early form of Gnostic teaching of the Cerinthian variety. This heresy was also libertine, throwing off all moral restraints. Consequently, John wrote this letter with two basic purposes in mind: (1) to expose false teachers and (2) to give believers assurance of salvation.

The first of three letters traditionally attributed to the apostle John, son of Zebedee. The author denounces those who deny that Jesus appeared in the flesh, and calls upon those addressed to be bound together in mutual love.

2 John

During the first two centuries the gospel was taken from place to place by traveling evangelists and teachers. Believers customarily took these missionaries into their homes and gave them provisions for their journey when they left. Since Gnostic teachers also relied on this practice, 2 John was written to urge discernment in supporting traveling teachers.

This brief letter is from an author calling himself "the elder." Believers must love one another and not be deceived by those who say that Jesus never came in the flesh.

3 John

Itinerant teachers sent out by John were rejected in one of the churches in the province of Asia by a dictatorial leader, Diotrephes, who even excommunicated members who showed hospitality to John's messengers. John wrote this letter to commend Gaius for supporting the teachers and, indirectly, to warn Diotrephes.

The author of 3 John also calls himself "the elder." It is addressed to "Gaius" and accuses the leader of Gaius's church of lack of hospitality and of spreading false accusations.

Jude

Although Jude was very eager to write to his readers about salvation, he felt that he must instead warn them about certain immoral men circulating among them who were perverting the grace of God. Apparently these false teachers were trying to convince believers that being saved by grace gave them license to sin since their sins would no longer be held against them.

The author is said to be Jude, a brother of Jesus. He exhorts those addressed to keep the faith and beware of false teachers.

Revelation

John writes to encourage the faithful to resist staunchly the demands of emperor worship. He informs his readers that the final showdown between God and Satan is imminent. Satan will increase his persecution of believers, but they must stand fast, even to death. They are sealed against any spiritual harm and will soon be vindicated when Christ returns, when the wicked are forever destroyed, and when God's people enter an eternity of glory and blessedness.

Traditionally attributed to the apostle John, son of Zebedee, Revelation is in the form of a letter to seven churches in Asia Minor. The author sees an apocalyptic vision of a great sacrificial Lamb. The Lamb receives a scroll from God and breaks the seven seals on it one by one: the first four seals produce four apocalyptic horsemen, the next two raise the dead, and the last brings silence. Seven angels then blow their trumpets in sequence: the first six blasts cause destruction on earth; the seventh joins heaven together with what remains. A woman in childbirth appears: the child is taken to heaven. The angels under the archangel Michael defeat a seven-headed dragon. A terrible beast emerges. Its lesser companion deceives the world into worshiping it.

The day of judgment breaks. Seven angels empty bowls of plague representing God's anger on to the world and over the beast. The cities of the world collapse and vanish. Babylon, the "Great Whore," burns and the world laments her passing. Songs of victory resound in heaven. The new age begins - after which Satan is released for a short time before his ultimate end. Then there is a new heaven and a new earth, and on the earth a new, messianic city of Jerusalem.

NT Overview

For Christians and Christian religions, the New Testament embodies a central part of the Bible. Coupled with the Old Testament, today it is the doctrinal foundation for most of Christianity. The Old Testament is a compilation of Jewish secular and religious laws as well as prophecies concerning the coming of a "Messiah," the savior of the world. The New Testament comprises an account of the life and teachings of Jesus Christ, whom many consider to be the prophesied savior (the name "Christ," designates Jesus as savior). The New Testament also details events that occurred after Christ's death, profiling the gospel message dispersed by his Apostles (specially-called followers).

The New Testament is composed of separate "books," written by Jesus' followers. These writings, gathered together many centuries after the events actually took place, are separated into two sections: the narratives and the epistles.

The "narratives" consist of five books, historical accounts written by Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John; these relate the teachings and life of Christ from his birth through to his death by crucifixion. The Book of Acts - sometimes considered the second part of the Book of Luke - relates key experiences of the Apostles after Jesus' death and resurrection.

The "epistles" comprise a series of letters written by Jesus' Apostles to various Christian congregations around the Mediterranean. Included in this section is also the Book of Revelation, which contains prophecies concerning Christ's church and his eventual return.

The first four books in the New Testament (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John) each cover the period of time from Christ's birth to his resurrection. The four accounts of his life, though similar in most details, differ somewhat in emphasis and purpose:

Matthew's gospel emphasizes how Jesus' life fulfills Old Testament prophecy, and includes many of Christ's discourses; Mark's gospel stresses Jesus' miraculous power, and presents a narrative of Jesus that is moving and full of action; Luke's account is characterized by an emphasis on Jesus' principles of forgiveness and love, and is the only gospel that underscores the role of women in Christ's ministry; and John's purpose seems to have been more to bear witness of Christ's divinity than to record places and events. The result is a portrait of Christ painted from many different angles, bringing to life the dynamic nature of this historic - and to many, divine - figure.

Text Overview:

The Narratives

Jesus was born in Bethlehem, Judea, to a virgin named Mary, who conceived through the power of God. Mary, and Jesus' earthly father, a carpenter named Joseph, raised Jesus in the Jewish faith. When he was only twelve years old, Mary and Joseph once found him preaching in a synagogue. Even at this early age, Jesus intimated that he was on a sacred mission.

But it wasn't until he was 30 that he started to minister full-time to the people. At that time, he called twelve "Apostles" to help him in the ministry.

Jesus went about teaching and healing the people who believed in his divinity:

God anointed Jesus of Nazareth with the Holy Ghost and with power: who went about doing good, and healing all that were oppressed...for God was with him.

Jesus' message was one of good tidings and hope. He instructed thousands of people on hillsides, in the temples and synagogues, wherever any could gather together. He often taught using "parables," stories to illustrate his precepts. One parable invited his followers to find the "lost sheep," those who had strayed from the path of God:

And he spake this parable unto them, saying, What man among you, having an hundred sheep, if he lose one of them, doth not leave the ninety and nine in the wilderness, and go after that which is lost, until he find it? And when he hath found it, he layeth it on his shoulders, rejoicing. And when he cometh home, he calleth together his friends and neighbors, saying unto them, Rejoice with me: for I have found my sheep which was lost. I say unto you, that likewise joy shall be in heaven over one sinner that repenteth, more than over ninety and nine just persons, which need no repentance.

For the most part, Jesus' teachings were deceptively simple, often centerting around the importance of loving both God and each other. He taught that when people love God, righteousness - and happiness - naturally follow.. Such teachings formed the fundamentals of Christianity:

• If ye love me, keep my commandments. (John 14:15)

• Serve God, not self-interests: No man can serve two masters. (Matthew 6:24)

• As I have loved you, love one another. (John 13:34)

• Humility is a virtue: Blessed are the meek: for they shall inherit the earth. (Matthew 5:5)

• He taught his disciples how to pray. Our Father which art in heaven, Hallowed be thy name. Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done, as in heaven, so on earth. Give us this day our daily bread. And forgive us our sins; for we also forgive every one that is indebted to us. And lead us not into temptation; but deliver us from evil. (Luke 11:2-4)

• Baptism is necessary for all: Except a man be born of the water and the Spirit, he cannot enter into the kingdom of God. (John 3:5)

• Set an example for good: Let your light so shine before men, that they may see your good works, and glorify your father which is in heaven. (Matthew 5:16)

• ...Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and with all they soul, and with all thy mind. This is the first and great commandment. And the second is like unto it, Thou shalt love thy neighbour as theyself. On these two commandments hang all the law and the prophets. (Matthew 22:37-40)

Jesus performed many miracles during his ministry. One one occasion, he turned water into wine; on another, he fed thousands of people with just a few fish and loaves of bread; he healed those who were crippled, strengthened the sick and infirm, and restored sight to the blind. On three different occasions, he brought the dead back to life. The Apostle John described Jesus coming to the grave of a friend who had been dead four days:

He cried with a loud voice, Lazarus, come forth. And he that was dead came forth. (John 11:43-44)

Through his miracles and spiritual counsel, Jesus gained many followers. However, not everyone was persuaded by his presence and accomplishments. Some Jewish leaders felt threatened by Jesus' power among the people, and, after suffering him for three years, determined to put an end to his ministry.

Jesus knew the end was near. Referring to Old Testament prophecy and relying on his own insight, he prepared his Apostles for what was to come, rehearsing to them how he would be crucified in fulfillment of his earthly mission.

Jesus, along with his Apostles, traveled to Jerusalem, where he continued to teach, preach and heal. Knowing he would soon be betrayed and slain, Jesus retired alone to a garden near the Mount of Olives, where, the Book of Luke says, he prayed, ...Father, if thou be willing, remove this cup from me: nevertheless not my will, but thine, be done. Luke continues: "And being in an agony he prayed more earnestly: and his sweat was as it were great drops of blood falling down to the ground."

Ironically, it was one of his own Apostles, Judas Iscariot, who sold information about Christ's whereabouts to the Jewish leaders, who had him arrested. Jesus was first taken before Caiaphas, a Jewish high priest, who accused him of "blasphemy" for claiming he was the Son of God and sentenced him to death. But since Judea was an occupied land under Roman authority, Jesus was turned over to the Roman consulate, Pontius Pilate. During the interrogation, Pilate could not find Jesus of breaking any Roman law. Not wishing to indict an innocent man, but aware of Jesus' unpopularity among the Jewish hierarchy, Pilate presented Christ, along with a murderer named Barabbas, to the Jews and offered to free one and crucify the other. Thinking they would rather crucify a known murderer, Pilate was dismayed when the crowd cried out that Jesus must be crucified. Anxious to keep the peace, however, Pilate gave in to their demands and ordered Christ's execution.

After being tortured by Roman soldiers, Jesus was forced to carry a wooden cross to the hill Golgatha (Calvary). There, his hands and feet were nailed to the cross, which was then propped up so everyone could witness the condemned man's death.

Jesus, after forgiving those who had oppressed him, died. As the Jewish Sabbath was about to begin (Friday at dusk), his body was hurriedly laid to rest in a tomb.

On Sunday, the third day following the crucifixion, the followers of Christ went to the tomb to dress and prepare Jesus' body, according to Jewish rites. To their bewilderment, they found the tomb empty. Angels then appeared, announcing to Christ's disciples that Jesus had risen from the dead - he had been resurrected, his body and spirit reunited.

Over the next 40 days, Jesus revealed himself many times to his followers. He invited them to feel the marks of the wounds in his hands and feet so they would know it was really him, Jesus Christ.

Finally, Christ had completed his mission, as foretold by the Old Testament prophets. Before ascending into heaven, he announced that he would someday return, and instructed his Apostles to go and teach the world the things he had taught them.

The Book of Acts recounts many of the exploits of Jesus' Apostles. Peter and John went about teaching Christ's gospel and, like Jesus had done, also performed miracles. They were arrested many times. Yet, under the suspicious gaze of Jewish leaders, they continued to preach Christ's message.

As the Apostles went among the people, they were persecuted by angry unbelievers. Stephen, a disciple, was stoned to death as he taught. Most of the Apostles and many of the disciples were eventually caught and slain for their beliefs.

One of the great stories in the New Testament involves a man named Saul, who hated and persecuted the believers in Jesus the Christ. All that changed when the resurrected Christ appeared to Saul in a vision. Saul was converted to the Christian faith and his name was changed to Paul. This Paul became one of the most active of the Apostles - who continued to be called after Christ's death - taking the Christian message to many foreign lands, including to Rome itself. It is through Paul's letters to early Christian congregations that many of Jesus' teachings are preserved today.

The Epistles

The Apostles and other authorized disciples of Christ set up congregations in the cities they visited. These congregations required much spiritual and temporal assistance to survive the persecution heaped upon them. To help strengthen the followers and instruct them more fully in Christian doctrine, the Apostles sometimes wrote letters to the congregations, in which they encouraged Christ's people to be faithful and reminded them of his teachings. Some of these Apostolic admonitions include:

• Whatsoever a man soweth, that shall he also reap. (Gal 6:7)

• ...The love of money is the root of all evil. (1 Tim 6:10)

• For as in Adam all die, even so in Christ shall all be made alive. (1 Corinthians 15:22)

• Even so faith, if it hath not works, is dead, being alone. (James 2:17)

• If we say that we have no sin, we deceive ourselves, and the truth is not in us. (1 John 1:8)

• For I am not ashamed of the gospel of Christ: for it is the power of God unto salvation to everyone that believeth; to the Jew first, and also to the Greek. (Romans 1:16)

The Apostle John - believed to be singularly blessed by Jesus to live until his return - wrote the Book of Revelation, which foretells the events of modern times. John also prophesied of Christ's "second coming" to the Earth. When Christ returns this second time, the New Testament says he will come with power and glory; as a King, he will set up a kingdom to rule the Earth where the righteous will dwell.

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